No region on Earth has been given as numerous names as the Middle East. Such excellent examples are Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, the Fertile Crescent and the ‘Muslim/Arab World’. The names of the Middle East are surpassed only by the large number of civilizations that have conquered the region, from Alexander’s Greece to the Ottoman Empire. The Prophet Muhammed, with the help of his followers, was perhaps the most successful and ultimately shaped the Middle East and its inhabitants from tribal pagans into an enormous bureaucratic world-power ruled by a Caliph.
The importance of this essay is not to explain in detail the history or political rule during the Golden Age of Islam, but to better comprehend the Middle East’s citizens fight for civil rights. It doesn’t require a political scientist to recognize that parts
of the Muslim World have little to no rights, especially its women. The best
way to demonstrate the diversity of its civil liberties in the Arab World would
be to research a significant amount of nations from North Africa and ‘Central’
Middle East. It is essential to break
the traditional misconception and show that the suppression of basic human
rights in the Arab World is located only in isolated
areas and does not represent the entire region.
This essay will examine civil rights in the region, by
selecting nations based on their leniency to civil rights into these three
factions: Liberal, Moderate and
Conservative. The key question that arises is how will these groups be
categorized? Determining what class a particular country is in depends on its
response and view towards democratic elections, women’s rights and education.
These
primary elements are the superstructure from which civil rights are
established. For example, how can a nation be considered a ‘free country’ when
it lacks a literate or tolerant population? In addition to these three core factors,
the select countries’ political systems and religious fundamentalism will be investigated
to see if these factors affect civil rights. Research on civil rights in the
Middle East, requires more than simply analyzing a couple of nations with
similar characteristics. A wide array of countries in different geological
locations better represents a contrasted Middle East. Recently, the Arab Spring has affected much of the Middle
East, but in order to use more stable research, it will be ignored during this
project. Countries that will be discussed in detail include: Tunisia, Saudi
Arabia, Jordan and Turkey and each of which will split into one of the three
factions depending on the previously stated criteria.
The
Republic of Tunisia is located in the North African region of the Middle East. The
US State Department considers Tunisia a Republic.1 Tunisia has a
bicameral legislature with a President, but it has been ruled by a one party
state since its independence.2 The country does allow for other
opposition parties, but they are severely restricted. For example, the
legislative Chamber of Deputies is a directly elected position; it has 182
seats and 148 of them are held by Constitutional Democratic Rally candidates (RCD).3 The one party state has passed legislation to control speech and other
liberties such as “freedom of press, association and expression.”4
The
Constitution, allows “every citizen who has Tunisian nationality for five years
and who is twenty years old has the right the vote;”5 however when
it comes to religious fundamentalism, Tunisia has vehemently opposed Muslim
law. According to
Democratization in the
Middle East, even though Tunisia has allowed for open elections, government
officials have “refused to allow Islamist elements to participate in the system.”6
Tunisia’s view on women’s rights is the next important element to examine.
Tunisia’s
response towards human equality strikes a significant blow to the stereotypical
Western view of the Middle East. According to Eschel Rhoodie, author of Discrimination against Women, the Tunisian
government has signed the UNCEDA, even though only six countries in the Middle
East have signed the declaration.7 Women are allowed to hold public
office. In the Tunisian parliament, women hold 6% of the seats; 8
women in the United States only hold around 18% of Congress’ seats.9
When
it comes to Tunisian economics, women are gaining ground in the country. In a
2002 study, women were shown to run 5,000 businesses in Tunisia and 15% of all
women were self-employed.10 The Tunisian government has passed waves
of civil reforms to give women an equal footing in their country. For instance,
women do not need permission from their husbands or fathers to travel. A woman
has the right to divorce and receive child custody. The government has also
banned polygamy, required consenting marriage and created a minimum age limit
for marriage.11
It
is certain that Tunisian officials’ goal was to make a successful secular
government, which they also have spread to their educational system. Literacy
rates in Tunisia are relatively low. Around 83% of men and 63% of women can
read and write.12 Tunisia’s inability to reach high-level literacy
is important, but the government has made positive reforms to education. Barry
Rubin, author of Long War for Freedom,
has indicated that Tunisia is the
“only
Arab state that really reformed its educational system to include liberal
Muslim thinkers, introducing a form of Islam that allows free discussion of
gender equality, human rights and democracy.”13
The
countries’ push towards a liberal interpretation of the Qur’an is paramount.
Rubin further explains Tunisia’s secular education by pointing out their “promotion
of Ijtihad without any restriction on
rational thinking.”14 Tunisia’s response to education is not only
remarkable, but also shows that the modern Western misconception, that Arab
nations are fueled by Shari’a law, is ultimately false. Rubin concluded that the
“Tunisia
experience shows moderate Islam
is
possible, but only if Arab states and societies teach their children that
it is legitimate and give them the tools need to live and believe that way.15”
Tunisia
has shown political corruption, women’s suffrage and equality and a push for
secular education. These three attributes are common among modern Western
nations. Tunisia is run by the RCD, which has been in power since its
independence, and has profoundly rejected Islam in this politics, law and
education. They have suppressed any form of speech, press and expression but at
the same time fought for Western ideas such as secular education and women’s
rights. Using this evidence, Tunisia can be considered a Moderate Arab nation.
Saudi
Arabia, unlike Tunisia, is one of the region’s most recognized nations when
thinking about the Middle East. It is geologically in the ‘middle’ of the
Middle East and its protruding peninsula sticks out on any globe. Saudi is home
to religious fundamentalists known as the Wahhabis, the possessor of the holy
cities Mecca and Medina and is the Islamic epicenter. All of these factors play
an integral part in Saudi Arabia’s response to democratic elections, women’s
rights and education.
The
US Department of State regards Saudi Arabia as a monarchial theocratic state.16
According to
Democratization in the
Middle East, “Only Saudi Arabia, where a new dynasty had come to power in
the name of Wahhabi Puritanism, was the Shari’a the exclusive law.”17
The executive branch, the King, works with a legislative (Council) and judicial
branch (Supreme Court). Unfortunately, the Council is just an advisory branch
and does not have any powers.18
When
it comes to public administration, the nation is governed by regional sectors.
These administrators are appointed by the King; it is no coincidence that all the
bureaucrats are part of the Saudi royal family.19 The King of Saudi
Arabia has ruled the state and based its laws on the Qur’an and Shari’a.
According to Goldberg, author of
Rules
and Rights in the Middle East, one of the “greatest obstacles in the way of
modernization and more extensive democratization in the Middle East is anachronistic
regimes around Saudi Arabia.”20 For example, the Saudi monarchy
opposes civil liberties and gives “no constitutionally guaranteed rights to
free speech press or assemble. No one has the right to vote or participate in
any political activity.”21
Saudi
Arabia’s response towards women’s rights is not only horrific but nears
barbarianism. In the
Democratization of
the Middle East, explains that Saudi is “intolerant towards women and minorities.”22
Ample research on women’s rights in Saudi Arabia shows the word ‘intolerant’
does not go far enough to describe the nation’s pugnacity towards human
equality. For example, if a woman wants a divorce, she must sacrifice leaving
her children because they belong to the husband.23 The nation’s
women are under constant Orwellian observation. For example, the Saudi
government has created a Morals Police task force; their job is to make sure
women wear government approved clothing.24 Women who fail to follow
the law will be sent to their homes and their husbands reprimanded for their
wives disobedience. The husbands are punished, because the woman is his property. Saudi has set up strong
restrictions on marriages that include foreigners. Saudi females may only marry
a non-Saudi male if she has received both permission of her male kin and the
state.25
Saudi’s
workforce is man-dominated. Women make up 3% of the total labor force in the
services section.26 This percentage makes perfect sense once one has
taken into account Saudi’s labor laws. For instance, Saudi has reinforced
prohibitions against men and women mixing professionally or socially;27 the
country also demands that the husband and wife must have separate living quarters.28
How can a nation provide a mixture of ideas when it separates its population in
half? It’s certain that Saudi Arabia’s plan is to limit free thought and
suppress basic human rights.
Education
in Saudi Arabia can be best described as perplexing. Rubin explains a excellent
example of Saudi resentment towards education when he states,
“Saudi
Arabia took no action against government clerics for accusing liberals as
traitors loyal to infidels. The government denounced educational reform as a
plot by ‘the Zionist-Crusader government in Washington’ to convert Muslims to
another religion.”29
But
at the same time, Saudi has shown some
improvement in its educational institution. For example 55% of graduates in
universities in Saudi are women 30, but to Saudi women’s misfortune,
there are no real occupations for them as shown by the low labor force number.
Saudi’s rise in women’s education is masked by its low literacy rate; 84% of
male and 70% of females can read and write.31
Saudi’s
form of government has been a hindrance upon its educated population. According
to Rhoodie, the Middle class Arabs “who have been educated in the West, are
chafing under the many restrictions of the closed political system.”32
Instead of trying to provide adequate careers for its educated population, the
royal family is more interested in maintaining the status quo. According to
Joseph, author of
Gender and Citizenship
in the Middle East, argues “the kingdom must have as its objective the
training of generations of students who are loyal to the values of the monarchy
and the ruling house.”33
Saudi
Arabia has been thoroughly examined for its blatant disregard of civil rights,
political freedoms such as speech, democratization and Westernization. The
monarchy has placed an iron heel upon its women and shows no plan on restraint.
The Wahhabis, unlike Tunisians, placed the Qur’an and Shari’a as the nation’s
constitution. Therefore, it is obvious that Saudi Arabia is a prime example of
a Conservative nation.
The
nation of Jordan resides by the River that birthed its name. The country is
ruled by a traditional monarchy with a bicameral legislation that King can
dissolve at his discretion.34 Jordan’s officials have provided its
citizens with a comprehensive constitution. Though the articles provide
freedoms, there are restrictions. Freedom of speech and press are guaranteed in
the constitution, but the Press and Publications Law puts limitations on speech.35
The Jordanian government has recognized all three Abrahamic religions. They
allow for freedom of religion as long as it’s consistent with ‘public order and
morality.’36
Rubin
considers Jordan’s government “more of a democracy in appearance than in
practice.”37 The Parliament does have different political factions.
Ironically, the government has actually banned political parties.38 The
King has acknowledged his people’s desire for a more democratic society,
especially after the 1989 riots.39 It appears the monarch has tried
to bring freedom to his people, but has kept restrictions on democracy.
Since
the King still keeps large amount of power, he has provided expansion in civil
rights. King has passed reforms for
women’s rights but the House of Representatives rejected many of the provisional
laws.40 The government has allowed for women to participate in
politics. For example, Jordan has established a quota for women, which reserves
them at least 6 seats out of 110 in the House of Representatives.41
Jordan’s citizenship is paternally based, like many of its Arabic neighbors. Joseph argues that “nationality is based on
blood ties established only through the father and is not tied to land or to
the nation.”42 Jordan’s responses to personal women’s rights are
conflicting. While women’s custody rights are constrained,43 their
testimony in court is equal to a man’s.44 Women’s equality in
testimony is a large step from the Qur’an’s interpretation of women’s
testimony.
Women
in Jordan have faced advancements and declines in economic rights. The country
has signed the International Labor of Conventions which requires equal pay,
nondiscrimination, social security benefits and equal employment policies for
women.45 When Jordan faced economic woes such as a lack of workers,
they did not turn to their women. Jordan imported Egyptian laborers instead of
hiring native women.46 However, overall women have taken a foothold
in the economy. Nazir says that,
“Women
can freely enter into business and finance-related contracts and activities at
all levels. They represent over 70% of all beneficiaries of micro-finance
projects in Jordan.”47
Jordan has made significant advancements in their
educational system. In 1960, only 33% of Jordanians aged fifteen and over could
functionally read and write;48 currently its literacy rate is 95%
for men and 90% for women.49 Jordan’s government has built thousands
of schools for its children. According to Jordan’s government site, today there
are 2787 government schools, 1493 private schools, 48 community colleges, and
19 universities.50 Jordan has allowed women to enter the education
sector. In a 1998 government study, women comprised of 66.6 percent of
community college students and 44.7 percent of the university population.51
Jordan has pushed for a high level of learning for its students. According to
the USAID site, the total enrollment rate for basic education is 90% and 70%
for the secondary education.52
Jordan is the beacon of democratic values in the Middle
East. Though it possesses a powerful monarchy, limited parliament and some
diminishing personal freedoms for women; its devotion towards education, women
in business and government and freedom of religion defer Jordan from being
considered a totalitarian regime. The nation has some of the highest literacy
rates in the entire region and is still promoting educational reform. Jordan
can be considered a Moderate nation.
Turkey has been in contact with the West more than any
other Middle East nation. As a matter of fact, anyone with novice knowledge in
history understands that Ottomans, even to an extent the ancient Hittites,
traded and worked with the Europeans. Turkey’s acceptance of the West is
noticed in their politics, response to women’s rights and education. An
excellent representation of this comes from Goldberg. He states, “Turkey has
been built through the combination of comprehensive modernization,
secularization and democratization.”53
Turkey is a democratic republic in the early 20th
century. The government further expanded its democracy when in 1945 they
allowed for a multi-party democratic system.54 During the mid 20th
century, the nation faced numerous coups from the military. One of the big
political parties, Democratic Party, has emphasized that its goal is to turn
“Turkey into a small America.”55 Since Turkey’s emergence from the ruins
of the Ottoman Empire, it has pushed for secularization. Ataturk focused on
abolition of the Caliphate, religious schools and courts and adoption of
Western ideas and styles.56 The secularization movement has created
some religious backlash. The Welfare Party, whose supporters are women, want to
be able to cover their heads at public universities.57
The Turkish Constitution states men and women are equal
before the law.58 The Constitution has been amended in recent years
to enhance women’s rights. For instance, Article 153 has been amended so women
can choose their last names.59 Though some restrictive articles have
been amended, women’s rights are somewhat diminished in the home. In Turkey,
the husband is declared the leader of the household.60 Unlike some
Middle Eastern nations, women do have the right to join political parties. The
Republican People’s Party took the stand of emancipation of women, abolition of
polygamy, and turned marriage into a civil contract and divorce a civil action.61
In Turkey, women have a political voice and can obtain freedoms in this free
society. Goldberg concludes women’s rights in Turkey by stating that “women in
republican Turkey obtained freedom and equality in the early 1930s in a fuller
sense than in several Western countries of the same period.”62
Turkey is a strong proponent of education. Ataturk, along
with followers, was able to bring his country from the ashes of the Ottoman
Empire into a literate highly-educated nation. Today, Turkey’s literacy rate is
around 89% and the average student goes to school for 11.8 years.63 The
Turkish high literacy rate might be related to their Constitution. The Constitution
of the
Republic
of Turkey not only gives every citizen the right to education
free of charge, but also requires compulsory primary education.64
The United States does not have any article that guarantees its citizens
education. For decades, Turkey’s secularist movement has reformed their
educational system. Turkey’s progress toward secular education is more strident
than other Middle East countries.65
Turkey has exemplified a Middle Eastern democratic nation
that supports Western ideas of freedom, equality and education. Turkey might
have some flaws in gender equality, but the same can be said of the United
States or any other industrialized nation. Turkey’s response towards gender
equality far surpasses its faults. Ataturk’s principles on education have
become a foundation for nation’s educational system. Improvements in education
have exponentially increased their literacy rate and amount of school years
they attend. Turkey can be best defined as a Liberal nation.
Muhammed might be the ‘finisher of prophets’ but not even
he could foresee what the Islamic World has become. In the recent decades, the
West has fabricated the Middle East as an uneducated fanatic fundamentalist
region hell-bent on spreading Islam. Proper research has dismantled the Western
misconception of the Arab World. This essay shows that the Middle East is not a
united pan-Islamic region, but is fractured. Religious and Shari’a
fundamentalism has shown to be scattered across the Arab World and not the law
of the entire region. Saudi Arabia might meet the typical Western stereotype,
but Jordan, Turkey and Tunisia do not. The Arab World is constantly evolving
and whether it’s enchaining or diminishing civil rights depends entirely on the nation-state.